An introduction to how different authors and theoretical traditions approach the concept of social structure, including a critical assessment of these perspectives. The aim is to highlight the significance of the concept—and of the theories derived from it—for the development of sociology as a discipline.

An outline of the standpoint from which sociology examines the overall characteristics of a society and identifies the main elements that comprise its social structure.

An examination of the basic characteristics that define so-called advanced societies. The sub-section also includes a critical discussion of the term and clarifies the conditions under which its use is analytically appropriate.

The sub-section begins by defining inequality, and its counterpart social equality. It analyses inequality in its historical trajectory and across different past and present social configurations. A key question is how advanced societies—despite having established extensive social, political and civic rights—continue to generate and reproduce significant inequalities.

This sub-section explores forms of inequality rooted in individual and group differences, including physical and biological characteristics (ethnicity, gender, age) and cultural attributes (religious practices, social habits). It then examines how these differences become socially structured, producing groups that are disadvantaged or subordinate in relation to others whose characteristics are positively valued in a given social context, allowing them to wield power over the others.

The focus here is on social class as a mechanism of stratification—that is, the organisation of social layers in relations of power and subordination. The sub-section introduces key theories used to analyse class in advanced societies, including Frank Parkin’s multidimensional approach, Ralph Miliband’s class-domination theory, and C. Wright Mills’ elite theory. It also discusses emerging challenges for sociological analysis in light of the reconfiguration of class structures in recent decades.

This sub-section reviews contemporary developments that show how economically wealthy societies engage in a constant struggle to dismantle the barriers that sustain inequality (a process often framed as “the struggle for entitlements and their wider social extension”), seeking full inclusion for all members—including immigrant populations and cultural or ethnic minorities. At the same time, it considers evidence demonstrating that the accumulation of wealth does not eliminate poverty and can, in fact, reinforce it. The theoretical perspectives of R. Dahrendorf and A. Sen are examined as core frameworks for analysing these extremes. Additional perspectives include theories of polarisation and fragmentation (with key contributions by E. Mingione, J.P. Fitoussi, and P. Rosanvallon). The sub-section also introduces the study of global inequality and cross-country comparison, drawing on the work of B. Milanovic. Finally, it explores the notion of negative discrimination (in R. Castel’s terminology) to understand what inequality means in societies composed of citizens with unequal degrees of social recognition.

This sub-section outlines the forms of economic development characteristic of advanced capitalism, including its dual structure of enterprises and labour markets. It examines the economic and business provisions that underlie material inequalities linked to social divisions, such as class, gender, and immigration.

Focus is placed on representative democracy as the primary form of governance in advanced societies. The interplay between political and economic power is examined, highlighting the limitations and implications of dependency relationships. An introduction is provided to the concept of political activity, distinguishing between the roles and actions of the government and those of citizens. The composition of civil society is outlined, along with the conditions under which it can potentially drive social change. The political roles of social movements and mass media are also explored. Understanding this structure enables students to see how political power and activity can influence social inequality.

Culture is conceptualised as both a set of symbolic activities—such as education, information dissemination, socialisation, artistic production, and design— and as the ensemble of characteristics that define contemporary society: its cultural contradictions, post-material values and ideology, visions of progress and modernity, ongoing digitalisation, and the emergence of a big data society. Key theories and concepts are introduced to analyse contemporary cultural forms, including art, mass culture, cultural consumption. Understanding this structure allows students to comprehend the diverse values and ideologies that shape societal behaviour and to consider how cultural change might be promoted to foster greater equality.